UPSC Mains 2015 GS Paper 1 Q11: model answer

Labour migration in and from India has changed in volume, direction and composition since the 1970s.

Internal migration

• From rural-to-rural (agricultural labour to Green Revolution states such as Punjab) towards rural-to-urban migration for construction, manufacturing and services.
• Major source states: Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha; destinations: Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala (which now receives migrants).
• Rise of short-term, circular migration and informal work; more women migrating for work, though marriage remains the main reason for female migration.

International migration

• 1970s onwards: the Gulf boom drew semi-skilled workers, especially from Kerala.
• From the 1990s: skilled professionals (IT, health) to the US, UK, Canada and Australia.
• India is the world's largest recipient of remittances (World Bank).

Drivers

• Agrarian distress, regional inequality, liberalisation, the IT boom and global demand.

Concerns

• Poor working conditions; lack of portable social security; exploitation in the Gulf (kafala).

Policy

• One Nation One Ration Card, the e-Shram portal, the Emigration Act and e-Migrate.

New trends after 2010

• The 2020 lockdown exodus showed how dependent cities are on circular migrants and how invisible they were in policy.
• Kerala's 'guest workers' scheme (Aawaz insurance) and e-Shram registration are early attempts at portable protection for workers who move between states.

Migration has moved towards cities and skills. Protecting migrants' rights is now central to inclusive growth.