Religious Movements: Jainism and Buddhism: Background and Jainism

Why new faiths arose in the sixth century BCE

The sixth and fifth centuries BCE were a time of deep religious questioning in the middle Ganga plain (today’s Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh). Historians count dozens of new sects (religious groups) in this period. Jainism and Buddhism became the most important and lasting. Several changes came together to make this happen.

Many of the new teachers were wanderers who had left family life. Prelims 2020 tested three such terms. A parivrajaka is a renunciant (someone who gives up home and property) and wanderer, and an upasaka is a lay follower of Buddhism, meaning a believer who still lives at home. Those pairs are right. The pair Shramana, Priest with a high status, is wrong: a shramana was an ascetic, someone living a hard, simple life, who sought liberation outside the Vedic priesthood. The answer is 1 and 3 only (b).

Other sects of the time are worth knowing. The Ajivikas, led by Makkhali Gosala, believed in niyati (fate): everything is decided in advance, so effort changes nothing. Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha gave the Barabar and Nagarjuni caves to them. The Lokayata or Charvaka school was materialist: it trusted only what the senses show, and denied rebirth and the authority of the Vedas. Prelims 2014 asked which pair does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy. The six orthodox systems (those that accept the Vedas) are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta, so the answer is Lokayata and Kapalika (c).

What UPSC asks

Prelims: terms (2020); Ajivikas and Lokayata; six systems (2014). Mains: why new sects arose in the sixth century BCE. Next likely: the Barabar caves and other heritage sites in the news.

Mahavira and Jain teachings

Jains believe their faith was taught by 24 tirthankaras (‘ford-makers’, those who help people cross the river of life and death). The first was Rishabhadeva (Adinatha). The 23rd, Parshvanatha, taught four vows. The 24th, Vardhamana Mahavira, gave Jainism its historical shape. Tradition dates him to 599–527 BCE; many historians place him somewhat later.

Mahavira was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali (Bihar) to Siddhartha, chief of the Jnatrika clan, and Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess. At 30 he left home. After 12 years of hard penance (self-punishment to purify the soul) he gained kevala jnana (supreme knowledge) at 42 under a sal tree near Jrimbhikagrama. He was then called Jina (‘conqueror’, one who has conquered his desires), and his followers became Jainas. Buddhist texts call him Nigantha Nataputta. He taught for about 30 years and died at Pavapuri near Rajgir at the age of 72.

Jains believe that every living thing, and even the smallest particle, has a soul (jiva). That is why Jain monks sweep the path before them, so as not to crush an ant. Prelims 2023 quoted this idea: Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects. That belief is Jain (b). Prelims 2013 listed three statements: The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance; every object, even the smallest particle, has a soul; and karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. All three are Jain teachings, so the answer is 1, 2 and 3 (d).

Prelims 2026 asked which is not among the four main forms of existence of life recognized in Jainism. The four forms (gatis) are deva (gods), manushya (humans), tiryancha (animals and plants) and naraki (hell-beings). Yaksha (demi-gods) is not one of them, so the answer is (b).

What UPSC asks

Prelims: Jain teachings (2013, 2023); forms of life (2026). Mains: ahimsa and anekantavada in Indian thought. Next likely: court debates on sallekhana.

Jain councils, sects, texts and contribution

Two councils (big meetings of monks) shaped the Jain holy books. The first met at Pataliputra in about the third century BCE under Sthulabhadra. The second met at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the fifth century CE under Devarddhi Kshamashramana. There the canon, the Agamas including the 12 Angas, was finally written down in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.

The great split followed a famine in Magadha. Tradition says Bhadrabahu led a group of monks south to Karnataka, with Chandragupta Maurya, who ended his life by sallekhana (fasting unto death) at Shravanabelagola. Those who stayed behind under Sthulabhadra began to wear white. In time the community split into the Digambaras (‘sky-clad’), whose monks wear nothing, and the Shvetambaras (‘white-clad’).

Smaller groups grew within each branch. Prelims 2018 asked which religion the Sthanakvasi sect belongs to. It is Jainism (b): the Sthanakvasis are a Shvetambara group that rejects image worship, as do the Terapanthis.

Jain literature is vast, in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, Kannada and Tamil. The Kalpasutra, credited to Bhadrabahu, tells the lives of the tirthankaras. Prelims 2022 listed four texts and asked: Which of the above are Jaina texts? The Parishishtaparvan of Hemachandra and the Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana, on the 63 great men of Jain tradition, are Jaina. The Nettipakarana and Avadanashataka are Buddhist. The answer is 2 and 4 only (b).

Jainism gave India more than a religion: early writing in regional languages, especially Kannada; a strong habit of non-violence and vegetarianism; support from merchant families; and great monuments such as the 57-foot Gommateshwara (Bahubali) statue at Shravanabelagola (about 983 CE), the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu and the temples of Palitana.

What UPSC asks

Prelims: sects (2018); Jaina texts (2022). Mains: Jain contribution to literature and art. Next likely: the Mahamastakabhisheka festival at Shravanabelagola.