Chapter 5 · Topic 5.3 · Prelims + Mains3 of 3
Biotechnology: Biofertilizers, biofuels and the bioeconomy
Key points
- Rhizobium (legume nodules), Azotobacter (free-living), Glomus (phosphorus), Nostoc (paddy).
- Biopesticides: Bt, Trichoderma, baculoviruses (NPV).
- NPB 2018: cassava, damaged grain, rotten potatoes, sugar beet allowed.
- Blending: 1.53% (2014) to 20% achieved (stated 8 Aug 2025).
- BioE3 policy (24 Aug 2024): six thematic sectors.
- Biopiracy example: Basmati patent (1997), turmeric, neem.
4 PYQs 2013–2026
Prelims box: facts and traps
| ESY | Ethanol blending |
|---|---|
| 2022-23 | 12.06% |
| 2023-24 | 14.60% |
| 2024-25 (to 28 Feb) | 17.98% |
- The UK passed the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Mitochondrial Donation) Regulations, 2015, the first law to allow it under licence. In July 2025 Newcastle researchers reported eight children born after pronuclear transfer.
- Trap (Prelims 2013): Agaricus and Spirogyra are not biofertilisers.
On this page (3 sections)
Biofertilizers and biopesticides
Biofertilisers are living organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil, like natural fertiliser factories. The main sources are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria (NCERT Biology, Class 12, Chapter 8):
- Rhizobium, in the root nodules of legumes (pulses), fixes nitrogen from the air. This means it turns air nitrogen into a form plants can use.
- Azospirillum and Azotobacter fix nitrogen while living freely in the soil.
- Many members of the fungal genus Glomus form mycorrhiza (a fungus-root partnership). They absorb phosphorus from soil and pass it to the plant.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are microbes that make their own food, and many fix nitrogen, e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc and Oscillatoria. In paddy fields they serve as an important biofertiliser and also add organic matter to the soil (NCERT Biology, Class 12, Chapter 8). Agaricus, by contrast, is a mushroom, a fungus (NCERT Biology, Class 11, Chapter 2). Per the official key, only Nostoc is a biofertilizer (Prelims 2013: answer (b), 2 only).
Consider the following organisms : 1. Agaricus 2. Nostoc 3. Spirogyra Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/biofertilizers?
- 1 and 2
- 2 only
- 2 and 3
- 3 only
Show answer
Answer: (b) · UPSC official key
Biocontrol uses living organisms against pests, like keeping a cat to control rats (NCERT Biology, Class 12, Chapter 8):
- Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) spores are sold in sachets, mixed with water and sprayed on plants such as brassicas and fruit trees. Caterpillars eat them and die.
- The fungus Trichoderma, common in root ecosystems, is an effective biocontrol agent against several plant diseases.
- Baculoviruses, mostly of the genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus, are species-specific, narrow-spectrum insecticides, meaning they attack only certain insects.
Why this matters: biocontrol relies on natural predation rather than added chemicals. Narrow-spectrum agents spare useful insects such as bees, which supports integrated pest management, a mix of methods that keeps chemical use low (NCERT Biology, Class 12, Chapter 8). For India’s microbial agents, see also the Biology chapter.
Biofuels and India’s ethanol programme
India’s National Policy on Biofuels, 2018 defines bioethanol as ethanol produced from biomass (MoPNG, National Policy on Biofuels, 2018):
- sugar containing materials: sugar cane, sugar beet, sweet sorghum,
- starch containing materials: corn, cassava, rotten potatoes, algae,
- cellulosic materials: bagasse, wood waste, agricultural and forestry residues.
It also allows ethanol from damaged food grains like wheat and broken rice which are unfit for human consumption, and from food grains during a declared surplus. So cassava, damaged wheat grains, rotten potatoes and sugar beet are allowed. Groundnut seeds and horse gram are not (Prelims 2020: answer (a), 1, 2, 5 and 6 only).
According to India’s National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels ? 1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet Select the correct answer using the code given below :
- 1, 2, 5 and 6 only
- 1, 3, 4 and 6 only
- 2, 3, 4 and 5 only
- 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
Show answer
Answer: (a) · UPSC official key
The policy groups fuels by feedstock (raw material) (National Policy on Biofuels, 2018):
- First generation (1G): bioethanol from sugar- and starch-containing materials, which can compete with food.
- Advanced biofuels: made from lignocellulosic feedstocks (crop residues such as rice and wheat straw, corn cobs, bagasse, woody biomass), non-food crops or industrial waste. They have low CO2 emission and do not compete with food crops for land. These include second generation (2G) ethanol, drop-in fuels, algae-based 3G biofuels, bio-CNG, bio-methanol and bio-hydrogen.
Biotechnology helps at each step. Microbes ferment sugars into ethanol, just as yeast ferments dough. Methanogens such as Methanobacterium, found in cattle dung (gobar), produce biogas, a mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide (NCERT Biology, Class 12, Chapter 8). The BioE3 policy lists carbon capture and its utilisation among its thematic sectors (PIB, 24 Aug 2024).
Mains 2025 asked how India can achieve energy independence through clean technology by 2047, and what role biotechnology can play. Points: 2G ethanol from residues, compressed biogas from waste, enzymes and engineered microbes, and biomanufacturing under BioE3.
How can India achieve energy independence through clean technology by 2047? How can biotechnology can play a crucial role in this endeavour?
| Ethanol blending in petrol | Figure | Status |
|---|---|---|
| 2014 | 1.53% | measured |
| ESY 2021-22 (June 2022) | 10%, five months ahead of target | measured |
| ESY 2022-23 | 12.06% | measured |
| ESY 2023-24 | 14.60% | measured |
| ESY 2024-25 (up to 28 Feb 2025) | 17.98% | measured, part year |
| E20 (20% blending) | advanced from 2030 to ESY 2025-26 | target (policy, amended 2022) |
| Current ESY (stated 8 Aug 2025) | 20% achieved | official statement |
Sources: PIB, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, 20 Mar 2025 (PRID 2113234) and 8 Aug 2025 (PRID 2154355). ESY = Ethanol Supply Year.
The bioeconomy, ethics and biopiracy
On 24 August 2024 the Union Cabinet approved the BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) Policy for high performance biomanufacturing, which means making products using living cells. It supports R&D and start-ups through Biomanufacturing and Bio-AI hubs and Biofoundries, in six thematic sectors (PIB, 24 Aug 2024):
- high value bio-based chemicals, biopolymers and enzymes,
- smart proteins and functional foods,
- precision biotherapeutics,
- climate resilient agriculture,
- carbon capture and its utilisation,
- marine and space research.
Mains 2018 asked why there is so much activity in biotechnology and how it has helped biopharma. Examples: recombinant insulin (NCERT), India’s own ZyCoV-D DNA vaccine (PIB, 20 Aug 2021) and policy support such as BioE3.
Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has this activity benefitted the field of biopharma?
For farmers, the gains are concrete: Bt cotton against bollworms, virus-free tissue-culture planting material, nitrogen-fixing biofertilisers and genome-edited rice (sources on earlier pages). Mains 2019 asked how biotechnology can improve farmers’ living standards. Mains 2021 asked about achievements in applied biotechnology and how they help the poor: cheaper vaccines and diagnostics, better seed and lower input costs.
How can biotechnology help to improve the living standards of farmers?
What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology ? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society ?
Biotechnology also helps after harvest. NCERT notes that genetic modification has helped reduce post-harvest losses (Chapter 10), and that bottled juices are clarified with microbial pectinases and proteases (Chapter 8) (NCERT Biology, Class 12). Mains 2026 asked how biotechnology has helped Indian farmers process perishable crops. Two examples: enzyme-based processing of fruit into clear juice, and longer-lasting produce from crops bred for lower post-harvest loss.
Explain by giving two examples, how biotechnology has helped the Indian farmers in processing their perishable crops.
Ethics and biopiracy. Changing organisms can have unpredictable results in an ecosystem, which is why GEAC decides on the safety of GM research and releases. Biopiracy is the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other organisations without proper permission from the countries and people concerned, and without compensation. It is like someone patenting your grandmother’s recipe and charging you for it. NCERT’s example is Basmati: India grows 27 documented varieties, yet in 1997 an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark Office. Attempts have also been made to patent uses of turmeric and neem (NCERT Biology, Class 12, Chapter 10).
What UPSC asks: Prelims: Rhizobium and Nostoc, 1G food vs 2G residues, BioE3’s six sectors. Mains: Glomus and phosphorus, Bt, Trichoderma and NPV, NPB 2018 feedstocks, E20 by ESY 2025-26, farmers and biopharma, biopiracy (Basmati).
Mains box: analysis and answer points
- Bioeconomy: BioE3 and biomanufacturing.
- Farmers: biotech gains and risks.
- Biopiracy: protecting traditional knowledge.
Practice
Practice MCQs (8)
In the regulation of genetically modified crops, the term 'event' is frequently used. Consider the following statements:
1. An event refers to a particular insertion of the transgene at a specific location in the genome of the plant.
2. Two plants carrying the same gene inserted at different locations in the genome are treated as different events.
3. Bollgard II cotton is identified by the event name MON 15985.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Answer (d) & explanation
When a gene is put into a plant cell, it lands at a more or less random spot in the genome, and each such insertion is unique. A plant line derived from one such transformation is called an event. The location matters: the same gene inserted at two sites may be expressed at different levels, may disrupt different native genes, and may behave differently in the field, so regulators assess each event on its own data. That is why approvals are written in terms of events, such as MON 531 for Bollgard I and MON 15985 for Bollgard II, and why ICAR could be allowed from 2017 to approve new hybrids that carry an already approved event without new biosafety review. Event names may look like car number plates, but they are the regulator's way of saying exactly which insertion is being cleared.
The first clinical gene therapy, given in 1990 to a four-year-old girl, was used to treat
Answer (a) & explanation
NCERT records that the first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a four-year- old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency, a cause of severe combined immunodeficiency. Her lymphocytes were grown outside the body, a functional ADA gene was introduced with a retroviral vector, and the cells were returned to her. Because lymphocytes are not immortal, the treatment had to be repeated; NCERT notes that introducing the gene into early-stage bone-marrow cells could give a permanent cure. Hence (a).
Consider the following statements about stem cells:
1. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are produced by reprogramming adult somatic cells.
2. The discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent earned Shinya Yamanaka a share of the 2012 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
3. Producing iPSCs requires the destruction of a human embryo.
4. Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
Answer (c) & explanation
Three statements are correct. iPSCs are made by switching on a few key genes (the 'Yamanaka factors') in adult cells such as skin cells, which turns them back into a pluripotent state (statement 1). Shinya Yamanaka shared the 2012 Nobel Prize with John Gurdon for showing that mature cells can be reprogrammed (statement 2). Embryonic stem cells come from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst (statement 4). Statement 3 is wrong: avoiding the use of embryos is the main ethical advantage of iPSCs.
Consider the following statements about the delivery of genetic medicines:
1. In ex vivo gene therapy, cells are taken out of the patient, genetically modified outside the body and then returned to the patient.
2. Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are commonly used as vectors for delivering genes directly inside the body.
3. Lipid nanoparticles cannot be used to carry genetic material into human cells.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer (a) & explanation
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. In ex vivo therapy (for example CAR-T and stem- cell based haemophilia therapy) cells are modified in the laboratory and infused back. In in vivo therapy the vector is given directly to the patient; disabled adeno-associated viruses are a favoured vector because they cause little disease and give long-lasting expression. Statement 3 is wrong: lipid nanoparticles are a major non-viral carrier; they delivered the mRNA in COVID-19 vaccines and are used for siRNA and gene-editing drugs. UPSC 2026 asked about viruses and lipid nanoparticles as carriers.
With reference to gene therapy, consider the following statements:
1. Genetic changes made through somatic gene therapy are not passed on to the patient's children.
2. India's National Guidelines for Gene Therapy Product Development and Clinical Trials (2019) prohibit germline gene therapy.
3. Germline gene therapy modifies only the blood cells of the patient.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer (b) & explanation
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Somatic gene therapy targets body cells such as blood, liver or muscle cells; the change stays with the patient and is not inherited. Germline gene therapy alters eggs, sperm or early embryos, so the change can pass to future generations. Because of these ethical and safety concerns, the ICMR-DBT National Guidelines for Gene Therapy Product Development and Clinical Trials (2019) permit only somatic gene therapy and prohibit germline and in utero gene therapy. Statement 3 is wrong because it describes somatic, not germline, therapy.
Consider the following statements about the Cas9 enzyme:
1. It is an enzyme that cuts DNA and is taken to its target by an RNA molecule.
2. The Cas9 of Streptococcus pyogenes cuts both strands of the DNA double helix at the target site.
3. It carries two cutting domains, each of which cleaves one strand of the double helix.
4. It can cut any sequence chosen in a genome, since no additional sequence requirement applies.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
Answer (c) & explanation
Statements 1, 2 and 3 are correct. Cas9 is an RNA-guided DNA endonuclease: the guide RNA takes it to the matching sequence and the protein cuts. Its HNH domain cleaves the strand paired with the guide and its RuvC domain cleaves the other strand, producing a double- strand break. Statement 4 is wrong because a PAM must sit next to the target; without it Cas9 will not cut, so the choice of target sites is restricted.
With reference to India's first-in-human gene therapy trial for haemophilia A, whose results were published in December 2024, consider the following statements:
1. A lentiviral vector was used to introduce a factor VIII gene into the patients' haematopoietic stem cells.
2. The trial was conducted at Christian Medical College, Vellore, with support from the Department of Biotechnology.
3. The gene-modified stem cells were obtained from matched unrelated donors.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer (c) & explanation
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. The trial, run by the Centre for Stem Cell Research at CMC Vellore (a translational unit of BRIC-inStem) with DBT support and Emory University, used a lentiviral vector carrying a factor VIII transgene. All five participants had an annualised bleeding rate of zero during follow-up, and the results appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine in December 2024. Statement 3 is wrong: the therapy was autologous: each patient's own blood stem cells were collected, modified outside the body (ex vivo) and infused back after conditioning.
With reference to mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT), consider the following statements:
1. In a child born after MRT, the nuclear DNA comes from the intended parents, while the mitochondrial DNA comes mainly from a donor woman.
2. The United Kingdom amended its regulations in 2015 to permit mitochondrial donation under licence.
3. MRT is used mainly to prevent the transmission of mutations in nuclear genes, such as the one causing haemophilia.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer (b) & explanation
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. In MRT the parents' nuclear genetic material is placed into a donor egg or embryo whose own nucleus has been removed, so the child has the parents' nuclear DNA and the donor's healthy mitochondria (hence 'three-parent baby'). The UK passed the Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Mitochondrial Donation) Regulations, 2015, the first law to allow it under licence; in July 2025 Newcastle researchers reported eight children born after pronuclear transfer. Statement 3 is wrong: MRT replaces mitochondria, so it can only prevent mitochondrial DNA diseases; haemophilia is caused by an X-linked nuclear gene.
0 / 0 correct
Prelims PYQs on this topic (2)
Which of the following statements with regard to GenomeIndia Project is/are correct ?
- 1. It is a part of the Human Genome Project.
- 2. The project is funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India.
- 3. Its primary aim is to build a catalogue of genetic diversity of the Indian population.
Select the answer using the code given below :
Answer (b) & explanation
Statements 2 and 3 are correct (b). Statement 2 is right: GenomeIndia (2020) is funded by the Department of Biotechnology. Statement 3 is right: it sequenced 10,000 genomes from many Indian communities to build a catalogue of the country's genetic variation, and the data was released in 2025. Statement 1 is wrong: the international Human Genome Project was a separate effort that ended in 2003. So options (a), (c) and (d) fail.
Notice the uses: finding gene variants behind diseases common in India, such as sickle cell and thalassaemia, and building personalised medicine. The data is stored at the Indian Biological Data Centre in Faridabad. A larger follow-up aims to sequence one million genomes.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in rehabilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza enables the plants to
- 1. resist drought and increase absorptive area
- 2. tolerate extremes of pH
- 3. resist disease infestation
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
Answer (d) & explanation
All three are correct (d). Mycorrhiza is a partnership between a fungus and plant roots. The fungal threads extend the absorbing area of roots far into the soil, helping the plant take up water and resist drought (1). They help plants tolerate extremes of pH, salinity and heavy metals in poor soils (2). They also protect roots against soil pathogens by forming a barrier and competing with them (3). This is why mycorrhizal inoculants are used to rehabilitate degraded sites such as mine spoils. So (a), (b) and (c) leave out real benefits.
Notice the main benefit: mycorrhiza greatly improves phosphorus uptake. About 80% of land plants form such partnerships. TERI in India developed mycorrhizal biofertilisers for wasteland reclamation. Trap: all three effects are documented.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Mains PYQs on this topic (2)
- UPSC Mains 2026 · GS Paper III · Q5Explain by giving two examples, how biotechnology has helped the Indian farmers in processing their perishable crops.How to approach: Intro: scale of post-harvest loss. Body: example 1 and example 2 in depth, with one or two shorter mentions. Conclusion: scale through FPOs and food parks.
- UPSC Mains 2025 · GS Paper III · Q6How can India achieve energy independence through clean technology by 2047 ? How can biotechnology can play a crucial role in this endeavour ?How to approach: Intro: goal and import bill. Body: (1) Clean technology path; (2) Role of biotechnology. Conclusion: combine solar, wind, nuclear and bio-energy with domestic s…
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In 150 words, explain the significance of Biotechnology with one recent example.
Flashcards (6)
Which of Agaricus, Nostoc, Spirogyra is a
biofertilizer? Nostoc.
Mycorrhizal fungus genus that supplies
phosphorus? Glomus.
Name four NPB 2018 feedstocks in the
2020 PYQ. Cassava, damaged wheat, rotten potatoes, sugar beet.
Ethanol blending in ESY 2023-24?
14.60% (measured).
What does BioE3 stand for?
Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment.
NCERT's biopiracy example?
US patent on Basmati rice (1997).
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