Reading comprehension I: inference, assumption, corollary and implication: previous-year questions
211 real UPSC Prelims questions (2011–2026) with the official answer and a clear explanation. 62 of them came in the last five papers.
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Read the passage
The paradox of choice is illustrated by the story of Buridan’s ass. Jean Buridan, the 14th century philosopher, wrote about free will and the inability to choose due to numerous choices and uncertainties. In the story, a donkey stands between two equally appealing stacks of hay. Unable to decide which to eat, it starves to death. Changes in technology and innovations such as smart phones and tablets only exacerbate our glut of choices. Constant connectivity and overconsumption of real-time data and social media can leave little room for self-reflection and rest, making decisions more difficult. Life is about choices. Many people are overwhelmed with attractive life choices, yet find themselves unhappy and anxious.
Which one of the following statements best reflects the most logical message implied by the above passage ?
Answer (d) & explanation
The message is that too few choices may be bad, but too many can be just as hard (d). Step 1: the passage tells of Buridan's ass, which starved between two equally good stacks of hay because it could not choose. Step 2: it says technology adds to our "glut of choices", leaving people unhappy and anxious, yet "life is about choices". That is the paradox of choice, so (d). Step 3: option (b) calls the choices difficult; the passage calls them attractive. Option (a) blames technology for weakening society. Option (c), lacking courage, is not discussed.
Tip: "paradox" signals two sides. Pick the option that holds both: choices are needed, but too many overwhelm.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
To tackle the problem of pollution in cities, policy makers think that drastic actions like temporary use of odd-even number scheme for vehicles, closing schools, factories, construction activities, and banning the use of certain type of vehicles are a way forward. Even then the air is not clean. Vehicles more than 15 years old comprise one percent of the total; and taking them off the road will not make any difference. Banning certain fuels and car types arbitrarily is not proper. Diesel engines produce more PM 2·5 and less CO₂ than petrol or CNG engines. On the other hand, both diesel and CNG engines produce more NOₓ than petrol engines. No one has measured the amount of NOₓ that CNG engines are emitting. Arbitrary bans on vehicles that have passed mandated fitness tests and periodic pollution tests are unfair. What is needed is the scientific and reliable information about the source of pollutants on a continuing basis and the technologies that will work to reduce pollution from them.
Which one of the following statements best reflects the most logical and rational implication conveyed by the passage ?
Answer (b) & explanation
The implication is that knee-jerk reactions cannot fix pollution, but an evidence-based approach can (b). Step 1: the passage says drastic steps like odd-even and closing schools still leave the air unclean. Step 2: it ends: "What is needed is the scientific and reliable information about the source of pollutants". That is (b). Step 3: option (a) says curbs are difficult to implement; the passage calls them unfair, not hard. Option (c), heavy penalties, is not suggested. Option (d), lack of laws, is not discussed.
Tip: "unfair" and "difficult" are different complaints. Match the passage's exact objection.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
Household finance in India is unique. We have a tendency to invest heavily in physical assets such as gold and property. Steps to encourage the financialization of savings are critical. A populace accustomed to traditional processes will not simply jump into financialization. Hurdles to change include onerous bureaucracy, a scepticism of organized financial institutions, a lack of basic information about which of the myriad services and providers is best for each family, and how (and even if) one can make the transition between them if necessary.
Regarding the financialization of household savings, which of the following statements best reflect the solutions that are implied by the passage ?
- 1. A flexible environment is needed to develop solutions.
- 2. Households need customised solutions.
- 3. Innovations in financial technology are required.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
Answer (d) & explanation
All three solutions are implied (d). Step 1: the passage lists hurdles to financialising savings. "Onerous bureaucracy" implies the need for a flexible environment (1). Step 2: the lack of information on which service is "best for each family" implies customised solutions (2). Step 3: the lack of information and the difficulty of moving between providers imply the need for fintech innovation (3). So options (a), (b) and (c) fail.
Tip: when a passage lists problems, each problem implies its own solution. Match them one by one. Indians traditionally save in gold and property, which this passage calls physical assets.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
Good corporate governance structures encourage companies to provide accountability and control. A fundamental reason why corporate governance has moved onto the economic and political agenda worldwide has been the rapid growth in international capital markets. Effective corporate governance enhances access to external financing by firms, leading to greater investment, higher growth and employment. Investors look to place their funds where the standards of disclosure, of timely and accurate financial reporting, and of equal treatment to all stakeholders are met.
Which of the following statements best reflects the logical inference from the passage given above ?
Answer (b) & explanation
The logical inference is that good corporate governance improves firms' credibility (b). Step 1: the passage says investors put their money where disclosure, accurate reporting and fair treatment are strong. So good governance builds trust. That is (b). Step 2: option (a) says external financing is the world's agenda. But the passage says corporate governance moved onto the agenda. Step 3: option (c) says capital markets ensure good governance; they only explain its rise. Option (d), supply chains, is not mentioned.
Tip: separate cause from result. Capital markets explain why governance became important; they do not guarantee it.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
Pharmaceutical patents grant protection to the patentee for the duration of the patent term. The patentees enjoy the liberty to determine the prices of medicines, which is time-limited to the period of monopoly, but could be unaffordable to the public. Such patent protection offered to the patentees is believed to benefit the public over the longer term through innovations and research and development (R&D), although it comes at a cost, in the nature of higher prices for the patented medicine. The patent regime and price protection — through a legally validated high price for the medicine during the currency of the patent — provide the patentee with a legitimate mechanism to get returns on the costs incurred in innovation and research.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. Patent protection given to patentees puts a huge burden on public’s purchasing power in accessing patented medicines.
- 2. Dependence on other countries for pharmaceutical products is a huge burden for developing and poor countries.
- 3. Providing medicines to the public at affordable prices is a key goal during the public health policy design in many countries.
- 4. Governments need to find an appropriate balance between the rights of patentees and the requirements of the patients.
Which of the above assumptions are valid ?
Answer (b) & explanation
Assumptions 1 and 4 are valid (b). Step 1: the passage says patent prices "could be unaffordable to the public". So patents can burden people's buying power (1). Step 2: it also says patents reward R&D and benefit the public in the long run. So governments must balance patent rights and patients' needs (4). Step 3: assumption 2, dependence on imports, and assumption 3, other countries' policy goals, are outside the passage. So options (a), (c) and (d) fail.
Tip: India's Patents Act Section 3(d) blocks "evergreening" of patents, an example of balancing innovation with access to medicines.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
Elephants are landscape architects, creating clearings in the forest, preventing overgrowth of certain plant species and allowing space for the regeneration of others, which in turn provide sustenance to other herbivorous animals. Elephants eat plants, fruits and seeds, propagating the seeds when they defecate in other places as they travel. Elephant dung provides nourishment to plants and animals and acts as a breeding ground for insects. In times of drought, they access water by digging holes which benefits other wildlife.
Which one of the following statements best reflects the most logical and rational inference that can be drawn from the passage ?
Answer (b) & explanation
The best inference is that elephants are a keystone species that benefit biodiversity (b). Step 1: the passage says elephants make clearings, spread seeds through dung, feed insects and plants with dung, and dig waterholes in drought. Step 2: all these help many other species. A species whose role supports so many others is a keystone species. That is (b). Step 3: option (c) says biodiversity cannot survive without them, which is too absolute. Option (d) gives elephants a purpose, as if they plan the forest. Option (a) talks of home range, which is not discussed.
Tip: a keystone species has a large effect on its ecosystem relative to its numbers. India declared the elephant its National Heritage Animal in 2010.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
India should ensure the growth of the digital economy while keeping personal data of citizens secure and protected. No one will innovate in a surveillance-oriented environment or in a place where an individual’s personal information is compromised. The ultimate control of data must reside with the individuals who generate it; they should be enabled to use, restrict or monetise it as they wish. Therefore, data protection laws should enable the right kind of innovation — one that is user-centric and privacy protecting.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. Protection of privacy is not just a right, but it has value to the economy.
- 2. There is a fundamental link between privacy and innovation.
Which of the above assumptions is/are valid ?
Answer (c) & explanation
Both assumptions are valid (c). Step 1: the passage says India should grow its digital economy while keeping personal data safe. So data protection has economic value, not just rights value (1). Step 2: it says "no one will innovate" where personal data is compromised. So privacy and innovation are closely linked (2). Step 3: so options (a), (b) and (d) fail.
Tip: India passed the Digital Personal Data Protection Act in 2023, and its rules were notified in November 2025. The Supreme Court declared privacy a fundamental right in the Puttaswamy case (2017).
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
In India, the segregation of municipal waste at source is rare. Recycling is mostly with the informal sector. More than three-fourths of the municipal budget goes into collection and transportation, which leaves very little for processing/resource recovery and disposal. Where does waste-to-energy fit into all this ? Ideally it fits in the chain after segregation (between wet waste and the rest), collection, recycling, and before getting to the landfill. Which technology is most appropriate in converting waste to energy depends on what is in the waste (that is biodegradable versus non-biodegradable component) and its calorific value. The biodegradable component of India’s municipal solid waste is a little over 50 per cent, and biomethanation offers a major solution for processing this.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. Collection, processing and segregation of municipal waste should be with government agencies.
- 2. Resource recovery and recycling require technological inputs that can be best handled by private sector enterprises.
Which of the assumptions given above is/are correct ?
Answer (d) & explanation
Neither assumption is correct (d). Step 1: the passage describes the problems: little segregation, recycling mostly by the informal sector, and three-fourths of the budget spent on collection and transport. Step 2: it never says who should run collection and segregation, so assumption 1 (government agencies) has no basis. Step 3: it never compares public and private firms on recycling technology, so assumption 2 fails too. Options (a), (b) and (c) fail.
Tip: an assumption must be needed for the author's argument. If the passage never discusses who should do a job, any "who" assumption is out.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
In India, the segregation of municipal waste at source is rare. Recycling is mostly with the informal sector. More than three-fourths of the municipal budget goes into collection and transportation, which leaves very little for processing/resource recovery and disposal. Where does waste-to-energy fit into all this ? Ideally it fits in the chain after segregation (between wet waste and the rest), collection, recycling, and before getting to the landfill. Which technology is most appropriate in converting waste to energy depends on what is in the waste (that is biodegradable versus non-biodegradable component) and its calorific value. The biodegradable component of India’s municipal solid waste is a little over 50 per cent, and biomethanation offers a major solution for processing this.
Which one of the following statements best reflects the crux of the passage ?
Answer (c) & explanation
The crux is that segregating waste is the first step to make waste-to-energy plants work (c). Step 1: the passage says waste-to-energy fits "after segregation". The right technology depends on what is in the waste. Step 2: but it opens by saying segregation at source "is rare" in India. So without segregation, these plants cannot succeed. That is (c). Step 3: option (b) calls biomethanation the most ideal way; the passage says only "a major solution". Option (a), cheap energy, is not claimed. Option (d) contradicts the "over 50 per cent" biodegradable share.
Tip: India's Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 require segregation at source. Biomethanation turns wet waste into biogas.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
There is a claim that organic farming is inherently safer and healthier. The reality is that because the organic farming industry is still young and not well-regulated in India, farmers and consumers, alike, are not only confused about what products are best for them, but sometimes use products in ways that could harm them as well. For example, since organic fertilizers are difficult to obtain on a large scale in India, farmers often use farmyard manure, which may contain toxic chemicals and heavy metals. Certain plant sprays, such as Datura flower and leaf spray, have an element called atropine. If it is not applied in the right dose, it can act on the nervous system of the consumer. Unfortunately, how much and when to use it are not well-researched or regulated issues.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. Organic farming is inherently unsafe for both farmers and consumers.
- 2. Farmers and consumers need to be educated about eco-friendly food.
Which of the assumptions given above is/are correct ?
Answer (b) & explanation
Only assumption 2 is correct (b). Step 1: the passage says farmers and consumers are confused about which products are best and sometimes use them in harmful ways. So both need to be educated (2). Step 2: it blames harm on poor regulation, contaminated farmyard manure and wrong doses of sprays like Datura. Step 3: it does not say organic farming is inherently unsafe (1). The problem is misuse, not organic farming itself. So options (a), (c) and (d) fail.
Tip: "inherently" means by its very nature. If the passage blames how something is used, it is not inherently bad.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
There is a claim that organic farming is inherently safer and healthier. The reality is that because the organic farming industry is still young and not well-regulated in India, farmers and consumers, alike, are not only confused about what products are best for them, but sometimes use products in ways that could harm them as well. For example, since organic fertilizers are difficult to obtain on a large scale in India, farmers often use farmyard manure, which may contain toxic chemicals and heavy metals. Certain plant sprays, such as Datura flower and leaf spray, have an element called atropine. If it is not applied in the right dose, it can act on the nervous system of the consumer. Unfortunately, how much and when to use it are not well-researched or regulated issues.
Which one of the following statements best reflects the most logical, rational and practical message conveyed by the author of the passage ?
Answer (c) & explanation
The message is that Indian farmers need guidance and help to make organic farming sustainable (c). Step 1: the passage says the organic industry is "young and not well-regulated". Step 2: doses and timing of sprays are "not well-researched or regulated". So farmers need guidance. That is (c). Step 3: option (a) says organic farming should not be promoted, and option (b) says there are no safe alternatives. Both reject organic farming, which the author does not do. Option (d), profits and global markets, is not discussed.
Tip: a critical passage is not always against the idea. Here the author wants organic farming done right, not stopped.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
Food consumption patterns have changed substantially in India over the past few decades. This has resulted in the disappearance of many nutritious foods such as millets. While food grain production has increased over five times since independence, it has not sufficiently addressed the issue of malnutrition. For long, the agriculture sector focussed on increasing food production particularly staples, which led to lower production and consumption of indigenous traditional crops/grains, fruits and other vegetables, impacting food and nutrition security in the process. Further, intensive, monoculture agriculture practices can perpetuate the food and nutrition security problem by degrading the quality of land, water and food derived through them.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. To implement the Sustainable Development Goals and to achieve zero-hunger goal, monoculture agriculture practices are inevitable even if they do not address malnutrition.
- 2. Dependence on a few crops has negative consequences for human health and the ecosystem.
- 3. Government policies regarding food planning need to incorporate nutritional security.
- 4. For the present monoculture agriculture practices, farmers receive subsidies in various ways and government offers remunerative prices for grains and therefore they do not tend to consider crop diversity.
Which of the above assumptions are valid ?
Answer (b) & explanation
Assumptions 2 and 3 are valid (b). Step 1: the passage says monoculture degrades the quality of land, water and food. So depending on a few crops harms health and the ecosystem (2). Step 2: it says grain output rose five times but did not fix malnutrition. So food planning must include nutritional security (3). Step 3: assumption 1 calls monoculture inevitable, which goes against the passage. Assumption 4, about subsidies and prices, is never mentioned. So options (a), (c) and (d) fail.
Tip: 2023 was the International Year of Millets, led by India at the UN. Millets are exactly the "disappearing nutritious foods" this passage mentions.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
In some places in the world, the productivity of staples such as rice and wheat has reached a plateau. Neither new strains nor fancy agrochemicals are raising the yields. Nor is there much unfarmed land left that is suitable to be brought under the plough. If global temperature continues to rise, some places will become unsuitable for farming. Application of technology can help overcome these problems. Agricultural technology is changing fast. Much of this change is brought about by affluent farmers in the West/Americas. Techniques developed in the West are being adapted in some places to make tropical crops more productive. Technology is of little use if it is not adapted. In the developing world, that applies as much to existing farming techniques as it does to the latest advances in genetic modification. Extending to the smallholders and subsistence farmers of Africa and Asia the best of today’s agricultural practices, in such simple matters as how much fertilizers to apply and when, would lead to a greatly increased availability of food for humanity. So would things like better roads and storage facilities, to allow for the carriage of surpluses to markets and reduce wastage.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. Development of agricultural technology is confined to developed countries.
- 2. Agricultural technology is not adapted in developing countries.
Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
Answer (d) & explanation
Neither assumption is valid (d). Step 1: the passage says "much of" the change in farm technology comes from the West. "Much of" is not "all of", so technology is not confined to developed countries (1 fails). Step 2: it says Western techniques "are being adapted in some places" to make tropical crops more productive. So statement 2, that technology is not adapted in developing countries, is false. Step 3: so options (a), (b) and (c) fail.
Tip: watch absolute words like "confined" and "not adapted". One line saying "much of" or "some places" is enough to reject them.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
In some places in the world, the productivity of staples such as rice and wheat has reached a plateau. Neither new strains nor fancy agrochemicals are raising the yields. Nor is there much unfarmed land left that is suitable to be brought under the plough. If global temperature continues to rise, some places will become unsuitable for farming. Application of technology can help overcome these problems. Agricultural technology is changing fast. Much of this change is brought about by affluent farmers in the West/Americas. Techniques developed in the West are being adapted in some places to make tropical crops more productive. Technology is of little use if it is not adapted. In the developing world, that applies as much to existing farming techniques as it does to the latest advances in genetic modification. Extending to the smallholders and subsistence farmers of Africa and Asia the best of today’s agricultural practices, in such simple matters as how much fertilizers to apply and when, would lead to a greatly increased availability of food for humanity. So would things like better roads and storage facilities, to allow for the carriage of surpluses to markets and reduce wastage.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. Poor countries need to bring about change in their existing farming techniques.
- 2. Developed countries have better infrastructure and they waste less food.
Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
Answer (a) & explanation
Only assumption 1 is valid (a). Step 1: the passage says spreading "the best of today's agricultural practices" to smallholders in Africa and Asia would greatly increase food. This assumes poor countries must change their current farming methods (1). Step 2: it mentions roads and storage to cut wastage, but it never compares developed and poor countries on infrastructure or waste (2). Step 3: so options (b), (c) and (d) fail.
Tip: an assumption must be needed for the author's argument. A comparison the author never makes cannot be an assumption.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
In some places in the world, the productivity of staples such as rice and wheat has reached a plateau. Neither new strains nor fancy agrochemicals are raising the yields. Nor is there much unfarmed land left that is suitable to be brought under the plough. If global temperature continues to rise, some places will become unsuitable for farming. Application of technology can help overcome these problems. Agricultural technology is changing fast. Much of this change is brought about by affluent farmers in the West/Americas. Techniques developed in the West are being adapted in some places to make tropical crops more productive. Technology is of little use if it is not adapted. In the developing world, that applies as much to existing farming techniques as it does to the latest advances in genetic modification. Extending to the smallholders and subsistence farmers of Africa and Asia the best of today’s agricultural practices, in such simple matters as how much fertilizers to apply and when, would lead to a greatly increased availability of food for humanity. So would things like better roads and storage facilities, to allow for the carriage of surpluses to markets and reduce wastage.
Based on the above passage, the following assumptions have been made :
- 1. Growing enough food for future generations will be a challenge.
- 2. Corporate farming is a viable option for food security in poor countries.
Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
Answer (a) & explanation
Only assumption 1 is valid (a). Step 1: the passage says yields have plateaued, little spare land is left, and warming may make places unfit for farming. So growing enough food in future will be a challenge (1). Step 2: the passage favours helping smallholders and subsistence farmers. Corporate farming is never raised (2). Step 3: so options (b), (c) and (d) fail.
Tip: if the passage's solution is "help small farmers", an option pushing a different model (corporate farming) is outside it.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
The demographic dividend, which has begun in India and is expected to last another few decades, is a great window of opportunity. The demographic dividend is basically a swelling in the working age population, which conversely means that the relative ratio of very young and very old will, for a while, be on the decline. From the experience of Ireland and China, we know that this can be a source of energy and an engine of economic growth. The demographic dividend tends to raise a nation’s savings rate since in any nation, it is the working age population that is the main saver. And since the savings rate is an important driver of growth, this should help elevate our growth rate. However, the benefits of demographic dividend depend on the quality of the working age population. And this implies bringing back the importance of education, acquisition of skills and human capital.
Which of the following would invariably happen in a country, when the demographic dividend has begun to operate?
- 1. The number of illiterate people will decrease.
- 2. The ratio of very old and very young will decrease for a while.
- 3. Population growth rate will quickly stabilize.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Answer (b) & explanation
Only statement 2 happens invariably (b). Step 1: the passage defines the demographic dividend as a swelling working-age population. It says this means the ratio of very young and very old will decline "for a while" (2). That always happens by definition. Step 2: statement 1, fewer illiterates, depends on policy. The passage says benefits depend on education, not that literacy rises automatically. Step 3: statement 3, population growth stabilising quickly, is not mentioned. So options (a), (c) and (d) fail.
Tip: "invariably" means always. Only what is true by definition passes; outcomes that need policy action do not.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
The demographic dividend, which has begun in India and is expected to last another few decades, is a great window of opportunity. The demographic dividend is basically a swelling in the working age population, which conversely means that the relative ratio of very young and very old will, for a while, be on the decline. From the experience of Ireland and China, we know that this can be a source of energy and an engine of economic growth. The demographic dividend tends to raise a nation’s savings rate since in any nation, it is the working age population that is the main saver. And since the savings rate is an important driver of growth, this should help elevate our growth rate. However, the benefits of demographic dividend depend on the quality of the working age population. And this implies bringing back the importance of education, acquisition of skills and human capital.
With reference to the passage, which of the following inferences can be drawn?
- 1. Demographic dividend is an essential condition for a country to rapidly increase its economic growth rate.
- 2. Promotion of higher education is an essential condition for a country for its rapid economic growth.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Answer (d) & explanation
Neither inference can be drawn (d). Step 1: the passage says the demographic dividend "can be" an engine of growth. It does not say growth is impossible without it. So it is not an essential condition (1 fails). Step 2: the passage stresses education, skills and human capital in general. It does not single out higher education as essential (2 fails). Step 3: so options (a), (b) and (c) fail.
Tip: "can be a source" is not "is a necessary condition". India's working-age population share is expected to stay high for the next few decades, making skills the key.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
The majority of people who fail to accumulate money sufficient for their needs, are generally, easily influenced by the opinions of others. They permit the newspapers and the gossiping neighbours to do their thinking for them. Opinions are the cheapest commodities on the earth. Everyone has a flock of opinions ready to be wished upon by anyone who will accept them. If you are influenced by opinions when you reach decisions, you will not succeed in any undertaking.
Which one of the following is implied by the passage?
Answer (c) & explanation
The passage implies there are people who fail to save enough money for their needs (c). Step 1: it begins: "The majority of people who fail to accumulate money..." This assumes such people exist. That is (c). Step 2: option (a) says most people do not save. But the passage speaks of the majority of those who fail, not most people overall. Step 3: option (b) says most people never fail, which the passage does not say. Option (d), no need to save, goes against it.
Tip: an implication can hide in the subject of a sentence. "The majority of X" quietly assumes X exists.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
The majority of people who fail to accumulate money sufficient for their needs, are generally, easily influenced by the opinions of others. They permit the newspapers and the gossiping neighbours to do their thinking for them. Opinions are the cheapest commodities on the earth. Everyone has a flock of opinions ready to be wished upon by anyone who will accept them. If you are influenced by opinions when you reach decisions, you will not succeed in any undertaking.
What is the main idea of the passage?
Answer (a) & explanation
The main idea is that people should not be influenced by others' opinions (a). Step 1: the passage says people who fail to save let newspapers and neighbours think for them. Opinions are "the cheapest commodities". Step 2: it ends: if opinions influence your decisions, "you will not succeed". So don't be swayed by them. That is (a). Step 3: option (b), save as much as you can, is not the point. Option (c) says never give or take opinions, which goes too far. Option (d) turns the warning into a guarantee of success.
Tip: "If you do X, you will fail" does not mean "If you avoid X, you will succeed". Watch for this reversal trap.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.
Read the passage
To encourage research is one of the functions of a university. Contemporary universities have encouraged research, not only in those cases where research is necessary, but on all sorts of entirely unprofitable subjects as well. Scientific research is probably never completely valueless. However silly and insignificant it may seem, however mechanical and unintelligent the labours of the researchers, there is always a chance that the results may be of value to the investigator of talent, who can use the facts collected for him by uninspired but industrious researchers as the basis of some fruitful generalization. But where research is not original, but consists in the mere rearrangement of existing materials, where its object is not scientific but literary or historical, then there is a risk of the whole business becoming merely futile.
The author’s assumption about scientific research is that
Answer (c) & explanation
The author assumes scientific research is never without some value (c). Step 1: the passage says scientific research is "probably never completely valueless". That means it always has some value. That is (c). Step 2: option (d) says it is always very valuable, which inflates "some value". Step 3: option (a), never very valuable, and option (b), sometimes very valuable, are not what the author says.
Tip: "never completely valueless" = "always has some value". Keep the strength of the claim exactly as the passage puts it.
Answer as per the official UPSC answer key.